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| A History of Perspective Une histoire de la perspective Una historia dela perspectiva |
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| Perspective is «the science which teaches how to represent tri-dimensional objects on a bi-dimensional surface, so that the perspective image coincides with the one which is given by direct vision.» This definition by P. Reina, in his La Prospettiva, (Milan, 1940) is at one and the same time concise and accurate. Product of the Renaissance, linear perspective, or the reasoning of vision, played a fundamental role in the development of art and science, and we believe at icscis... the Art School, that this overview will play as an important role in the evolution of your drawing and painting. It is Leone Batista ALBERTI (born Genoa, Feb. 14., 1404, d. Apr. 25., 1472), brilliant humanist, architect, painter and philosopher, who, by his publication of his art treatise entitled Della Pittura, made one of the greatest contributions to the Renaissance. In Florence, he was very interested by the work of the architect Filipo Brunelleschi, to whom he dedicated his famous study in which one finds everything known about perspective, hence the title of the icscis publication The Alberti Project (out of print ISDN-CIP 0-9681053-0-0). We would like you to bookmark our site so you may follow every six or eight weeks the magnificent history of perspective, how it was discovered, and why it was destroyed by Picasso. It took 20,000 years to draw perspective properly, and only 300 years to abolish it. Why? Keep visiting icscis' web site to know more |
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| La perspective et la préhistoire | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Perspective in the Prehistoric Time | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| La perspective et l'art égyptien | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Perspective in Egyptian Art | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Perspective in Greek and Roman Art | La perspective chez les Grecs et les Romains | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Perspective in the Middle Ages | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| La perspective au Moyen Âge | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Perspective in the Fourteenth Century | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| La perspective au Quatorzième siècle | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| The Renaissance and Perspective | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| La Renaissance et la perspective | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| The Renaissance and its Aftermath: Mannerism | L'après Brunnelleschi : le Manniérisme | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| 1) the Prehistoric Time Fifteen thousands years ago, in the bowels of the Earth, human beings painted and sculpted. Intimately linked to ritual and magic, their art sustained a lack of embellishment, yet at the same time showned great sensitivity, of which these bulls may be a living proof. In spite of the simplification of form, we realise that the artist, or the shaman, was already preoccupied by the notion of depth. This dance of the bulls, (La Rondes Tauraux) a magnificent fresco from the Lascaux Caves in Dordogne, France, shows a very rudimentary perspective ; notice the overlapping animals, thus creating interplay between the near and far. For thousands of years, this elementary perspective hardly evolves, until the Egyptian kingdoms”. 2) ...Egyptian Art From the caves of the Old Stone Age to the great pyramids of Egypt, art did evolve. Greater attention is given to detail as well to human anatomy, as shown in this portrait of Hesy-ra, a wood panel found in Saquara, dating from the third millennium before Christ (above).Note the swelling of the knees, the calves and the arms : let's also contemplate the details of the skirt, and the objects that the man holds in his hands.Notice the eye, shown here in its frontal position when his head is seen in profile. This paradox born of Egyptian psychology, demonstrates a better representation of depth. It is the same with the torso and the legs.As for Egyptian landscape, a beautiful example is this relief which shows Ti watching an hippopotamus hunt (not shown). This totally natural perspective is essentially the same found in the grottoes of Lascaux, except for the fact that the distances are now increased and the shapes are more defined.Three plane levels are created in order to perceive three depth planes. Notice the size of the felukas which are all different... Words do not suffice to describe a mural from the tomb of Khnum-hotep in Beni Hasan, showing men feeding their oryxes. The author of this work of art judged it necessary to situate the animals on two different horizontal lines in order to accentuate the distances. Before we leave, let's underline the religious reform under Aknaton's reign (Amenophis IV), which granted a total freedom to the artist. This liberty is well showed in this beautiful mural painting of Aknaton's daughters. Notice the attempt for a three quarter position, an elasticity of the bodies, a humanism of the figures symbolised by the gestual and the smile. We would have to wait a few centuries before to acquire the quality of representation.Words do not suffice to describe this mural from the tomb of Khnum-hotep in Beni Hasan, showing men feeding their oryxes. The author of this work of art judged it necessary to situate the animals on two different horizontal lines in order to accentuate the distances. Before we leave, let's underline the religious reform under Aknaton's reign (Amenophis IV), which granted a total freedom to the artist. This liberty is well showed in this beautiful mural painting of Aknaton's daughters fromthe Midle Kingdom. Notice the attempt for a three quarter position, an elasticity of the bodies, a humanism of the figures symbolised by the gestual and the smile. We would have to wait a few centuries before to acquire the quality of representation. 3) ...Greek and Roman Seduced by the beauty of Greek Art, the Romans copied their works of art by the thousands : the Greek manner was to be under the tutelage of the Roman subject matter. Pompeian painting, exhumed from the lava of Vesuvius, such as this mural representing the city shows eloquently how the vanishing lines of classical perspective, or "herringbone perspective", converge toward many points situated on a same vertical axis. This technique is partly responsible for the Roman painting's scenographia of which Vitruvius speaks about in his treaty on architecture. In other respects, the concept of perspective as "transparent vision" was taken quite seriously on one of Rome's seven hills. To paint a fresco just as we were painting a landscape seen through a window obsesses numerous painters for the Patrician's pleasure. A fresco from an antique old Roman domus, or a house, built on the Esquiline, testifies to the great talent of observation possessed by the artist of this episode taken from Homer's Odyssey . It is as if we were ourselves, walking in this landscape. Let's note the horizon line, well established in the frame, which solidifies even more the landscape's cliffs. Notice the multiple planes created by the fleet, which conveys to this fresco a sense of proportion between the men and the objects inhabiting the landscape. With the geometric perspective of Esquilinian painting, never were we so close to linear perspective, right until the day the Emperor Constantine, proclaims the Edict of Milan in 313, decree which gave the right to profess freely one's own religion. Christianity and the Barbarian invasions, among others, would restrain, if not stop, the evolution of three dimensional representation.
4)... The Middle Ages According to Irwin Panofsky, if we had lost the Treaties on perspective and, because of that, were uniquely reduced to the testimony of the works, our image of the Renaissance and Modern Times would have been quite different. But not totally different thanks to the 14th Century, with the Italian painters Cimabue, Duccio, Giotto and Ambrogio Laurenzetti who opened the way to triumph over medieval representation; in the North, it was the famed Van Eyck. They disengaged the views obstructed since the advent of Christ and started to revive and brighten up the closed interiors. The view presented to the beholder is a truer reflection of reality. In Duccio's Annunciation of the Death of Mary, interior spaces are more solid. He revived the antique perspective although the Archangel's left foot and right arm present some ambiguity in relationship to the door embrasure. In his Last Supper of the Sienna altarpiece, although the enclosed space regains some of its sovereignty, the table seems to be located at the exterior of the "box of space". Only a section of the pictorial space would be under the tutelage of a basic perspective, not the whole pictorial plane itself. It is Giotto who attempts to give back to the horizon line its authority status, which was denied during the preceding millennium. The spectator of this beautiful Entrance in Jerusalem can finally ambulate with the Holy Family, for the ground on which he or she stands is parallel to the horizon line of the painting; the beholder watches the scene from a horizontal specific location. Moreover, his or her eye reaches depth in the painting once long forgotten. The cornice that Cimabue painted around 1280, in the lower transept of San Francesco Church in Assisi does fall in the realm of modern perspective for it situates the beholder in a precise location. In this Annunciation by Laurenzetti, progressive painter of the following generation, let's notice his gift of observation, as he converges all the floor's vanishing lines toward a single and unique point. By doing this, he discovered the concrete symbol of infinity. This discovery permitted to establish with precision, thanks to the tiling of the floor, the distances separating the figures as well as their dimensions; and it is so with his Presentation to the Temple of 1342. But it remains that this point is hidden behind the gold or the architectural motif, a location which prohibits all opening toward depth since the elaboration of the group of figures is always more important than the space it inhabits. Moreover, the works from the Netherlands would appear to surpass the Italian mastery of perspective, such as this magnificent painting entitled Madone du Chanoine Vander Paele (Jan Van Eyck), which transforms itself into a full portion of reality; space is omnipresent. But the perspective found in the works of Van Eyck is still "incorrect" although the eye perceives the contrary, for the artist's approach to perspective remains empirical and is not based on the solid foundations of mathematics established by Alberti of Florence with his costruzzione legittima. Against his eye he held the tavoletta looking through a little hole not bigger than "a lentil", in such a manner that he would be able to see the baptistery reflected image on the mirror. This apparatus permitted to coincide his little painting with the building in front of him. Brunelleschi discovered that in order for a painting to dissolves perfectly in reality, the artist must stands at one and single spot. From this moment, we understood that there was only a single view point and not necessarily a single vanishing point. We are in 1415. But Brunelleschi is not a scholar like Leone Battista Alberti was, who 20 years later, from the notes of the first, wrote the very first treaty on linear perspective or artificial perspective (perspectiva artificialis) entitled Della Pittura. The Antonio Manetti's biography of Brunelleschi and the architectural treaty by Filarete also contributed to Alberti's study. Alberti' Della Pittura proposes to explain to his contemporaries all the mathematical and geometrical foundations of perspective or the costruzzione legittima. The fundamental definition of a painting by Alberti is the following : "The painting is the intersection of the picture plane with the visual pyramid". Thanks to Brunelleschi's experience and Alberti's Della Pittura, we finally disposed of a universal rule which was mathematically founded. The perspectiva grammica or pingendi or simply prospettiva (1475) made intellectual artists out of the simple artisan painters of the period. Let's name the most important, Masaccio who around 1425, painted the first painting with artificial perspective. His magnificent fresco of the Holy Trinity in Florence demonstrates effectively that the use of perspective demands at once stylistic unity. Perspective sees itself as an instrument of cohesion, of equilibrium, of method as this painting... Let's notice here Paolo Ucello's unblemished effort in this sketch of a chalice, a painter who constantly repeated "How sweet is perspective". In his Battle of San Romano, observe the bodies and the lances which are transforming the ground to an almost perfect checker-board. http://www.uq.net.au/iacobus/uccello/san_romano.html Let's underline the table of Duccio's Last Supper, which is now firmly anchored into space if we compare it with Duccio's. Leonardo Da Vinci's table is as solid. We are now in the 16th Century, at the time of the High Renaissance, at the time when perspective reached its climax concerning the graphic and poetic representation of space, It took more than 40,000 years of visual research to arrive at this point. Une histoire de la perspective 1) ...dans la préhistoire 3) ...pendant l'antiquité grecque et romaine Séduit par la beauté de l'art de la Grèce, c'est par milliers que les Romains copieront les œuvres de ce pays : la manière grecque sera désormais sous la tutelle du sujet romain. La peinture pompéienne, exhumée des laves du Vésuve, dont cette murale représentant a cité, montre de manière éloquente comme les fuites de la perpective antique dite en "arrête de poisson" se dirigent vers différents points placés sur un même axe vertical. Cette technique est en partie responsable de la scenographia de la peinture romaine dont par le Vitruve dans son traité d'architecture. Par ailleurs, sur l'une des sept collines de Rome, le concept de perspective comme "vision transparente" est pris au sérieux. Peindre une fresque, comme si on peignait ce qu'on voyait au travers le cadre d'une fenêtre, obsède nombre de peintres pour le plaisir des patriciens. Une fresque provenant d'une vieille maison romaine de l'Esquilin, témoigne le grand don d'observation de l'artiste qui peint cet épisode tiré de l'Odyssée tout comme si nous marchions même, ou vedutions dans cette scène. Notons la ligne d'horizon, bien situé dans le cadre, qui solidifie encore davantage le roc du paysage. Observons les multiples plans que crée la flotte, et notons, la dimension des géants qui lancent des pierres, qui donne à cette fresque une échelle presque parfaite entre le paysage, les êtres et les objets qui l'habitent. Avec la perspective géométrique et la peinture esquiline, jamais nous étions si proche de la perspective moderne jusqu'au jour Constantin proclame, en 313, l'Édit de Milan, décret officiel donnant le droit de culte. Le Christianisme, ainsi entre autres les invasions barbares, viendront freiner, pour ne pas dire arrêter, l'évolution de la représentation de la troisième dimension.
4) Le Moyen Âge Dans le Sud de l'Europe, ce sont les peintres italiens Cimabue, Duccio, Giotto et Ambrogio Laurenzetti qui ouvrent la voie qui triomphe sur la représentation médiévale, et, dans le Nord, l'illustre Van Eyck. Ils dégagent les vues "traversantes" bouchées depuis le début de notre ère, et font revivre les espaces intérieurs clos bien que ceux-ci demeurent limités, surtout ceux de Cimabue et de Duccio. Ils redonnent aux spectateurs la vision qu'on leur avait jadis ôter. Dans l' Annonciation de la mort de Marie de Duccio, l'espace clos est plus solide. Il ravive la perspective antique bien que le pied gauche et le bras droit de l'Archange créent quelques ambiguïtés par rapport à l'embrasure de la porte. Dans la Cène du retable du maître-autel de Sienne, bien que l'espace intérieur reprend de sa souveraineté, la table semble être à l'extérieur de cette "boîte d'espace". C'est ce que tente Giotto en redonnant à la ligne d'horizon son statut d'autorité qu'on lui avait nié lors du dernier millénaire. Le spectateur de cette magnifique Entrée à Jérusalem peut enfin déambuler avec la sainte Famille, le plancher sur lequel il est se tient étant parallèle à la ligne d'horizon de la fresque. De surcroît, l'œil de ce spectateur atteint des profondeurs dans le tableau comme jamais il ne l'avait fait depuis fort longtemps. C'est aussi ce que tente Cimabue lorsqu'il peint une corniche, vers 1280, Cimabue, dans le bas transept de l'église San Francesco à Assise, laquelle répond aux critères de la perspective moderne en ce qu'elle exige un point de vue précis chez le spectateur.
Par ailleurs, toujours selon Panofsky, si les hommes avaient égaré les traités de perspective et, par la force des choses, étaient réduits au témoignage des œuvres, l'image (ou la vision) que nous aurions fait de l'art de la Renaissance et des Temps modernes en serait bouleversée. Les œuvres des Pays-Bas pourraient l'emporter, pour ce qui est de la maestria de la perspective sur celle d'Italie, comme cette magnifique toile de la Madone du Chanoine Vander Paele, laquelle se transforme en une portion de réalité, "dans la mesure où et en ce sens que désormais l'espace que l'on imagine déborde de tous côtés". Mais la perspective des oeuvres de Van Eyk demeurent "incorrecte" bien que l'oeil pense du contraire, puisque sa démarche est empirique et non basés sur les fondations bien solides de la mathématique, ce que le grand Alberti de Florence établira avec sa costruzzione legittima. Vers 1500, Pomponius Gauricus, artiste théoricien, écrivait que "le lieu existant avant le corps placé en ce lieu devait nécessairement être fixé graphiquement en premier". En termes plus simples, "il faut créer d'abord l'espace afin d'y placer ensuite les acteurs et les objets auxquels ils se rapportent". C'est au Quattrocento que l'homme compris que pour acquérir la puissance de Dieu, il fallait faire comme Dieu ; créer d'abord la Terre, et l'homme ensuite, et non pas l'inverse. Près de 100 ans avant l'énonciation de cette axiome, un artisan, un architecte du nom de Filippo Brunelleschi, devant le baptistère San Giovanni, était au carrefour de l'histoire. Debout dans la porte centrale de la cathédrale de Florence, le dos à la nef, en mains un miroir et un petit tableau de ce même baptistère qu'il avait peint lui-même à la perfection, celui-ci munie d'une poignée (la tavoletta), il fait une expérience qui changera le cours de l'art. D'une main il tenait contre l'oeil la tavoletta qui avait un petit trou pas plus gros " qu'une lentille " et ce, de telle façon pour y voir l'image réfléchie du baptistère sur le miroir. Ce dispositif permettait de faire coïncider sa petite peinture avec l'édifice devant lui. Brunelleschi découvre que pour le tableau se fonde parfaitement dans la réalité, il devait impérativement se tenir à un seul et unique endroit. Dès ce moment on comprit qu'il existait qu'un seul point de vu et pas nécessairement un seul et unique point de fuite. Nous sommes en 1415. Mais Brunelleschi n'était pas versé dans les lettres comme l'était par contre Leone Battista Alberti, qui 20 ans plus tard, à partir des notes du premier et des siennes rédigera le premier écrit sur la perspective centrale ou artificielle (perspectiva artificialis) intitulé Della Pittura. Il se serait aussi appuyé sur la biographie de Brunelleschi par Antonio Manetti et le traité sur l'architecture de Filarete. Le Della Pittura d'Alberti explique à ces contemporains les fondements mathématiques et géométriques de la perspective ou de la costruzzione legittima. Sa réussite s'explique par la réduction de l'homme à un oeil, et l'oeil à un point de vue, et que ce point de vue, écrivait-il " absorbera l'espace de la pyramide visuelle ". La définition fondamentale d'Alberti est la suivante : "Le tableau est une intersection plane de la pyramide visuelle" Grâce à l'expérience de Brunelleschi et au Della Pittura d'Alberti, on disposait enfin d'une règle universelle mathématiquement fondée. La perspectiva grammica ou encore pingendi ou simplement prospettiva (1475) font des artisans que sont les peintres à l'époque, des artistes, des intellectuels. Nommons les plus importants, Masaccio qui, vers 1425, peint le premier tableau à perspective artificielle. Sa magnifique fresque de la Sainte Trinité à Florence démontre que "l'emploi de la perspective à la Renaissance exige sur le champ l'unité stylistique. Elle se veut comme un instrument de cohésion, d'équilibre et de méthode. Soulignons ici l'effort exemplaire de Paolo Ucello dans ce croquis d'un calice, ce peintre qui répétait sans cesse : "O combien douce est la perspective". Notons dans cette Bataille de San Romano, toujours du même artiste, les lances et les corps qui transforment le sol en un damier presque parfait. Et que dire de la dernière Cène de Duccio, maintenant, solidement ancrée dans l'espace si nous la comparons à celle de Duccio du retable de Sienne ; et celle de Léonard de Vinci, autant stable. Au 16e siècle, au temps de la grande Renaissance, la perspective avait atteint son apothéose quant à la représentation graphique et poétique de l'espace. Il fallut plus de 40,000 années de recherches plastiques pour en arriver là.
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